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Lecture 2 — Archaeology’s Past: Deep Time, Colonialism, and Modern Practice

Big idea: Modern archaeology emerges from (1) the discovery of deep time, (2) developments in the natural sciences, and (3) a history entangled with colonialism—which continues to shape ethics, museums, and repatriation.

Time and “deep time”

  • Time is culturally constructed (e.g., monochronic vs polychronic; linear vs cyclical systems).
  • Creationist chronologies (e.g., James Ussher dating creation to 4004 BCE) were challenged by geological and fossil evidence.

Early interest in the past

  • King Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): early “hobby archaeologist”; excavated/restored Babylonian temples.
  • Antiquarianism (Renaissance): collectors and speculators of artifacts/manuscripts (not scientific archaeology).

Natural sciences and the long past (19th c.)

  • Catastrophism: Earth shaped by a series of catastrophes.
  • Uniformitarianism (1830s): gradual, continuous processes; interpret change via stratigraphy.
  • Darwin (1859): evolution by natural selection; biological change is not directional—it’s adaptation.

Human origins and problematic 19th‑century frameworks

  • Fossils (Neanderthal 1856; Cro‑Magnon 1868) supported human biological antiquity.
  • Unilineal cultural evolution (Morgan 1877; “savagery → barbarism → civilization”) used to justify colonial hierarchies; archaeology has had to unlearn these narratives.

Explorers, empires, and collections

  • Layard at Nineveh/Nimrud; Napoleonic Egypt Expedition (1798–1801); Rosetta Stone; Stephens & Catherwood documenting Mesoamerican sites.
  • Colonial legacy: artifacts and monuments displaced from their origins; repatriation debates (e.g., Elgin Marbles, Ife head).

Emergence of modern archaeology (mid‑19th c. → present)

  • Thomas Jefferson: early systematic excavation of a Virginia burial mound; recognized continuity with Indigenous peoples.
  • Methodological shifts:
    • Controlled trenches/units; stratigraphic excavation; systematic recording.
    • Three‑Age System (Stone/Bronze/Iron): foundational but unilineal.
    • Radiocarbon dating (1940s): calendar ages for organic materials.

Equity and stakeholders

  • Women’s contributions (examples from lecture): Gertrude Caton‑Thomson; Gertrude Bell; Theresa Singleton.
  • 21st century: archaeology involves many stakeholders (descendant communities, publics, museums, NGOs, governments). Archaeologists don’t “own” the narrative.